二、 首段和尾段的写作
上一讲中我们介绍了段落的扩展模式，也就是说，我们已经了解了文章中间一部分的叙述模式。根据四六级写作的特点，一般首段和尾段都要自己补上，那么怎么才能写好首尾段呢，下面我介绍一下，首尾段的写作方式。
1．首段的写作
首段的写作方式一般为：
运用事实性信息、调查或故事等引出话题，2）导入主题，然后提出自己的观点，也就是文章的论点
首段开篇的方式常见的有：
1） 谚语法
由于谚语一般已经被大家所接受，用谚语提出自己的观点也容易被读者所接受。
As the saying goes, "Money makes the mare go", but there are many things we can't buy with money, such as time and true love. …
2） 定义法
定义法是通过对文章中的关键词做一些简单或正面或反面的解释，限定其范围，这样比较有利于引出主题。
"Practice makes perfect" is an old saying. It tells us that it does not matter if we are clumsy at doing something. As long as we keep on trying and practicing, we will do a good job in the end.
3） 提问法
通过提问一个或一连串的问题，可以激发读者的兴趣，从而引出主题。
a. Do you have many friends? Are they similar to you or different from you? Which kind of friends do you prefer?
b. What is a good student? Different people may have different answers to this question.
4） 概括法
概括法指先总结文章内容所涉及的现状，然后引出主题。
In recent years, with the development of science and technology, the Internet has come into more and more homes and is playing a more and more important role in our work and daily life. It has become a must to us, but at the same time, Internet has also brought with it a lot of problems.
5） 故事法
故事法指用简单有趣的故事激发读者的兴趣，从而提出自己的观点。如下面"Is Stress a Bad Thing?"
6） 引语法
"Just as eating without liking harms the health, learning without interest harms the memory and can't be retained." From Vinci's words we can see how important it is to motivate the students in language learning.
7） 调查法
为了得到读者的认可，文章的开始可以引出调查数据等，借以提出主题，如下面"Is Stress a Bad Thing?"的1）和"Can Schoolchildren Start Using the Internet?"的4）。
8） 假设法
假设法是指通过假设提出一种选择，交代文章要涉及的问题，从而提出文章的主题。
Suppose you were offered two jobs, one is highly-paid but rather demanding, the other is less demanding, but poorly-paid, which would you prefer? …
9） 综合法
具体写作时，同学们没有必要拘泥于一种方式，可以将上述方法总和起来。
首段示例1：
题目：Is Stress a Bad Thing?
提纲：
1）有人害怕压力
2） 有人认为压力并不是一件坏事
3） 我的看法
" I can't stand the pressure and competition," explained one friend of mine when asked why he decided to quit his highly-paid but demanding position in his company recently. My friend may have his own reasons, but I don't think his decision is wise in reality.
It is true that my friend's case is not unique. In the last few years quite a number of men and women have chosen to do something less competitive at the cost of a comfortable, easy life a highly-paid job can obtain. They are afraid that the stresses and strains of work will rob them of joy and happiness and do them harm both physically and mentally. In fact, however, stress isn't the bad thing it is often supposed to be. Unless it gets out of control, a certain amount of stress is vital to provide motivation and challenge, and to give purpose and significance to an otherwise meaningless, idle life. People under stress tend to express their full range of potential and to actualize their own personal worth - the very aim of a human life.
Stress is a natural part of everyday life and there is no way to avoid it. What we can do is to develop our adaptive abilities to deal with it rather than to escape from it.
就这一标题而言，根据所提示的提纲，首段的写作还可以采用下列方式：
1) According to a recent survey, in the last few years, quite a number of young people have chosen to quit their demanding but highly-paid jobs. Although they may have their own respective reasons, I don't think their decision is wise in reality.
2) Which job do you prefer, a highly-paid but very competitive position or a poorly-paid but also less demanding job? You may choose the latter and have your own reasons, but I don't think this choice is wise enough whatever reasons.
3) Faced with a hard and demanding task, people's attitude varies widely: some try to avoid it and others regard it as a challenge to their abilities. In fact the choice we make between "flight" or "fight make the difference between leaders and mediocrities(平庸之辈).
首段示例2：
标题：Can Schoolchildren Start Using the Internet?
提纲： 1）随着科技的发展，网络越来越普及；
2）网络有其优点但也有缺点；
3）我的观点
根据上面的提示，首段可有下列几种方式：
1) Nowadays, using the Internet has become a fashion. Many parents begin to teach their children to use the Internet. However, there are diverse opinions on this. Some think it wise, but I don't agree with them.
2) Today, the Internet is becoming more and more common. It begins to play a more and more important role in our society and life. It's so useful that most adults are learning how to use it. What about children? Of course they can start using it.
3) Today, with the development of science and technology, the Internet is beginning to play a more and more important role in our life. More and more people are starting to use the Internet, including schoolchildren. However, I think schoolchildren are too young to start using the Internet.
4) According to a recent survey, Internet users are becoming younger and younger, and Internet bars have become a resort for schoolchildren who log in to chat or play games. Faced with this phenomenon, many people argue for measures to prevent schoolchildren from using the Internet, and I think they have their reasons.
2． 结论段的写作
结论一般采用归纳概括、主题重述或提建议等方式。
常见的方式有：
1） 重述或总结主题
重述主题指于结论处以另外一种表达方式重申主题，与首段照应。
Families offer us warmth and care. Friends give us strength and horizon. They both help us understand the world as it is. Both of them are the dearest parts in our life.
2） 提出建议
Since postcards do us more harm and good, since we have many other ways to convey our feelings and promote our friendship, I hope everyone will take actions now to stop using postcards.
3） 概括总结
As we can see from the above, living in the suburb we can stay away from pollution, lead an easy leisure time, and needn't invest too much money, so I prefer living in the suburb to living in the city.
4） 引用名人名言
In particular, I enjoy what Francis Bacon said "Studies serve for delight, for ornament and for ability."
5)综合法
与首段一样，结论段也可以是多种方法的综合。一般说来，总结加建议的比较多。
尾段示例1：
如"网络"的结论段可以如下所示：
10） As we all know, the next century will become one of the Internet. Internet will become more and more important in both our daily life and our work. So I suggest that schoolchildren should start using the Internet.
11） So I think schoolchildren not only can start using the Internet, but also should start using it They are sure to benefit a lot from the internet.
12） Internet can help our children know the world, get useful information and enrich their knowledge. So I think schoolchildren can start using the Internet.
13） In a word (In conclusion/ In summary/ To sum up / In short), the Internet is playing a more and more important role in our life and it is helpful for children's growth both physically and mentally. It is better for them to start using the Internet as early as possible.
3．转承语的使用
根据不同的段落要求，选择适当的转承语
1) 比较对照
比较：like A, B …
Just as A, B …
A, similarly/correspondingly, likewise/in the same way, B …
对照： Unlike/ Contrary to/ As opposed to A, B …
A , however/on the other hand/in contrast, B ..
A …, B, however/on the other hand/in contrast, …
2)列举
First/ Second (Next) / Third (Then)/ Last (Finally), …
The fist/ The second/ The third/ The last (The final)
Firstly/Secondly/Thirdly/Last(Finally)
One/Another/Still another/The last
The most essential/most important/primary/chief is …
3) 因果
as a result, consequently, therefore, hence, so, because of this, for these reasons, due to the fact that
4 起承转合常用语
1）"起"的常用语
When asked about/ When it comes to/ Faced with …, some people
claim/think/argue/believe that …, but/while others …(differently)
Nowadays there is much/general discussion as to ….
With the development/improvement/growth of …,
Now, it is commonly/widely/increasingly believed/thought/held/acknowledge that …,
According to a recent survey/investigation/poll, …
Have you ever thought/wondered …?
Suppose …
As the saying goes, …
2) "承"的常用语
Those who hold ….
It is true that …
To be sure ..
First/Firstly …
The main/leading/underlying/root/ primary/chief/essential ….
"承接上文"的方式与文章的段落结构有关，比较的与列举的不同，与举例的也不同。同学们应根据具体的情况选择适当的承接语。
3）"转"的常用语
It sounds like a good(attractive) idea (suggestion), but they fail to understand (see, notice
There is probably an element of truth in the arguments (ideas), but they ignore a more important (basic) fact …
Closer examination (analysis), however, suggests (shows) that this argument (claim, idea) may not be borne of (supported) by the following evidence (facts, examples, statistics).
Close (careful) examination (analysis) of these arguments (ideas, suggestions), however, would reveal (suggest, prove) how flimsy (不足信的，不严密)(fallacious（靠不住的）, groundless（没有根据的）) they are.
However logical (sound, forcible(有说服力)) these arguments may be, they don't make sense (only skim the surface of the problem) when … is viewed the other way (taken into consideration).
As opposed to (Contrary to) the widely (commonly, generally) held idea (belief, view), new studies (facts) challenge (fail to justify) the opinion (view).
Good/Superior/Wonderful as …., it has its own disadvantages/ it brings its own problems.
They may be right about …, but they seem to neglect /fail to mention/take into account …
In all the discussion and debate over …, one important/basic fact is ignored/overlooked/neglected.
It is true that/ Admittedly, but it is unlikely/doesn't follow/doesn't mean that …
There is an element of truth in these arguments/statements, but they ignore a deeper and more basic/essential/important fact/factor …
In many cases, however, …
As far as .. is concerned, …
4) "合"的常用语
Experience/Evidence/All the facts suggest/show/demonstrate/ indicate that …
From what has been discussed above/Taking into account all these factors, we may safely draw/reach/come to/arrive/ the conclusion that…
In conclusion/To sum up/In summary/In short/To conclude ….
It is important/necessary/essential that effective/proper/powerful actions/measure/remedies should be taken to …
